cause and effect

He argued that higher IQs correspond to higher incomes and better performance in schools, although it remains unclear whether that is due to cause-and-effect or entrenched class differences.

It’s probably too much to say, in a cause-and-effect sense, that disco changed politics, or that politics created disco.

"The study provides insight into how blood pressure and arterial stiffness are linked to cognitive function. However, to establish a definitive cause-and-effect relationship between arterial health and brain health, and to determine whether increasing physical activity or reducing sedentary time can mitigate the negative effects of poor arterial health on cognition, further randomized controlled trials with appropriate control groups and advanced brain imaging techniques are necessary."

This uses genetic information to examine cause-and-effect relationships.

Because the study is an analysis of previously collected health data, it cannot prove a cause-and-effect relationship between cardiovascular health risk factors and DNA methylation.